The evolution and effectiveness of air pollution control policies in Beijing (2015–2025).

Air pollution continues to pose a serious threat to global public health and is strongly associated with cardiovascular diseases, respiratory illnesses, cancer, and substantial economic burdens (Schraufnagel et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2023). Since 2010, when the World Health Organization began systematically monitoring air quality in major countries, China’s urban areas have consistently reported high levels of pollution. In 2013, Beijing ranked among the world’s most polluted cities, with PM2.5 concentrations exceeding international standards by 156% and an average of 186 smog days per year (World Health Organization, 2013; Beijing Municipal Ecology and Environment Bureau, 2024). Episodes of severe pollution have led to school closures, traffic disruptions, and widespread public outcry, compelling the government to adopt immediate and effective policy interventions (Yan et al., 2025). To address this challenge, Beijing introduced a series of air pollution prevention and control policies between 2013 and 2025, implemented in three phases: the Ten Measures for Air Pollution Prevention and Control (2013–2017), the Three-Year Action Plan for Winning the Battle for Blue Skies (2018–2020), and the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025). These policies marked a significant shift in Beijing’s strategy, moving from short-term campaign-style measures toward a sustained multi-pronged approach that combines government regulation, market mechanisms, and voluntary public participation. This study aims to review and evaluate the effectiveness of Beijing’s evolving policies in reducing air pollution and mitigating related socioeconomic impacts. Specifically, it addresses two key questions: 1) how policy measures at different stages have contributed to improvements in Beijing’s air quality, and 2) what lessons Beijing’s air governance experience can offer to other megacities facing similar environmental challenges