Developing digital competencies in the European Union

Digital competence is now a fundamental pillar for citizenship, employability, and entrepreneurial capacity in the European Union. This chapter provides a critical and comparative analysis of the conceptual foundations, policy frameworks, and educational models that underpin digital skills acquisition across EU Member States. Drawing on the DigComp framework, the Digital Education Action Plan, and recent academic research, the chapter explores the evolution of digital competence as a multidimensional construct, encompassing technical, cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions. Persistent challenges (such as the digital divide, gender gap, and disparities in access) are discussed in relation to both formal and non-formal education, with particular attention to the integration of digital skills in entrepreneurship education. The chapter concludes by reflecting on the need for inclusive, adaptive strategies and lifelong learning pathways to foster digital empowerment in a rapidly changing technological landscape.